Intro–
I. Consequences of Conquest– revolutionary impact
1. big loss of population– 90-95% decline in 75 years– smallpox, influenza, measles– Indian society collapses
2. destruction/replacement of ruling class
3. mixture of culture — language, religion
4. re-structure land use & holdings — from communal to private ownership– most fertile lands seized for Spanish wheat, livestock, sugar, tobacco
5. Spaniards attempt to recreate Spanish society– lay out towns modeled on Spain, plant European crops, dress, etc.
— restructure diet — hate corn; introduce pigs, cattle
6. different economic orientation– global economy — different demands– cash crops require new methods, organizations
7. different conception of social hierarchy — egalitarian society seen as evil — Spanish system based on principles of Thomas Aquinas — goals are moral, stable, godly society — society is corporatist — hierarchy is class/race oriented — no concept of individual rights– draw rights from the group you belong to — class mobility not a goal– class stability– laws perpetuate class divisions
— social status crucial —
8. new racial patterns emerge– new caste system — Europeans (Peninsulares vs Creoles); Mestizo & Mulatto; Indian; Black — 16 types of race categories, each with specific distinctions, privileges
— majority mixed blood
— most Indians don’t assimilate into Spanish society — conscious effort to preserve culture & also Spanish policy — segregated & “protected” onto reductions or reservations — protected by corregadors
— policy fails:
1. mestizos make impractical
2. need for labor (agriculture & mining)
3. profits in exploiting in illegal forced labor (building roads, churches, etc)
4. fear of rebellion
5. population decline
6. godfather/kinship groupings — paternalistic society — patron responsible for underlings
7. trade between races
In areas where few Indians, or where population wiped out– import African slaves –> multiracial & multicultural society — class depends on race– “He used to be black, but then he became rich”
— interracial marriage rare, but much miscegenation and some social mobility from class to class as result of marriage, liaisons — great shortage of Spanish women (7-1)– intense competition for Spanish women, — mestizos dominant ethnic component
— Society dominated by males– cult of machismo develops early
— Women lead very restricted lives– thus few get re-married
II. Catholic Church — crucially important — “spiritual conquest” — Church primary teacher of Spanish customs & closest contact with Indians — unifying force
— but Church not always in line with imperial goals
— Hapsburgs rely on church as pillar of state– supplements power
— Two types of clergy
1. regular– live by reglas–> orders — Franciscans, Jesuits, Dominicans, Augustinians etc. — usually do not perform sacraments until colonial era — much contact with Indians — owe allegiance to pope (puppet of Spain 1500-1650) — hierarchy determined by order — different rules, characters– live in monasteries apart from society
2. secular — parish priest — lives in secular world — under bishops (kings) authority — dependent on state for career
By 1700 — seven bishoprics in New Spain (Mexico arch)
— eight bishoprics in Peru (Lima arch)
Role of Church
1. Religious — spreading faith
2. transmitter of Spanish culture, values & interpreters of Indian culture — most educated force in New World– great influence in public policy (las Casas)
— 1600 Inquisition established in colonies– keep faith pure, root out non-believers, help crown — judicial function — Indians protected — legal status of minors
3. State functions — no idea of church-state separation
a. education — all levels
b. social welfare– hospitals, insane asylums, poor houses
4. Economic — as colonies become wealthy — church accumulate $$ — supported by state & private donations — Church becomes great landowner & banker — conservative lender
— censo agreement — long term, low interest in perpetuity — pay only interest, not principle — good agreement– steady income, low risk — by 1630 — state forced into censo agreement
III. Church-Indian relationship — initially positive– authority of priest class easily accepted by Indians — saints, baptism, confession all practiced before; kind & good God fits well — Church provides protection, voice for Indians
Areas of Friction
1. forced (illegal) tribute & labor
2. clerical authorities administer taxes
3. attempt to eradicate Indian religions/languages– polygamy, promiscuity, incest curtailed
4. Church often corrupt– path to wealth — take mistress, etc
COLONIAL GOVERNMENT
Intro– One of the most amazing accomplishments of the Spaniards was their ability to create a government system that could control a vast empire for three centuries in an age of primitive technology.
The Hapsburg family viewed their New World colonies as personal property — not extension of Spanish state — King of the Indies — king is source of all legislation/law
— Spanish king ruled by “divine right” theory prevalent in Catholic nations– king is God’s representative– absolute power, but each possession has rights; different responsibilities
— sworn in, not crowned — must protect rights, uphold justice
Crown-conquerors conflict and desire to maximize profits leads to elaborate bureaucracy — Policymaking bodies– balance of power by design
A. Council of the Indies– 1524 — administrative, legislative & judicial– housed in Madrid, 25-30 members (nobles) — supreme — frame laws — much sub-committee work
— Council of Indies supervised by Council of Finance of Castile — approves taxes, expenses
B. House of Trade — 1503 — regulate trade; licenses ships; receives revenues — implement mercantilist policies — shares powers, functions with Council of Indies– much in-fighting, jealousy, competition resolved only by king
— agencies lack specialization, expertise
C. Viceroy– 1535 — vice king; responsible for originating, implementing policy — highest echelon of Spanish society — enforces laws, chief military commander, chief legal officer, financial officer, appoint minor officials– serve 3-8 years — chosen for loyalty– 3,000 miles away gives tremendous latitude
— New Spain, Peru established in 16th century — New Granada, Rio de la Plata established in 18th
— In sparsely populated or loosely-held areas captain-general functions as viceroy
D. Audiencia– 1527 — headed by viceroy– most important colonial government institution — royal court of appeal, consultative council to viceroy– some legislative functions– several within empire
— system is one of perpetual conflict over jurisdiction, authority– always need to appeal to viceroy or Council — local officials have extensive autonomy– “I obey but will not comply”
— Other courts — fueros (privileges)– special courts for specific groups — church, army, doctors, cattle raisers — justice expensive
E. Corregidor — local officials– police, administrative functions — petty tyrants
— two types — a. indios — “protect” Indians by regulating relations with Spaniards, collect tribute, monopoly over supply of European goods to Indians– licensing agent
b. espanoles– preside over cabildo to watch creoles
— serve for five years; post bond for malfeasance — chief military, judicial officer in district
— by 1680 — must buy office
F. cabildo — town council/government — several regidores (councilmen); 2 alcaldesordinarios (justice of peace); alguacil (constable) — positions are hereditary
Much corruption in system
20,000 pesos to buy office
15,000 peso bond
5,000 peso is five year salary — wide open to graft– invest Indian tribute, sell Indians and goods; monopolize alcohol sales; extort payments from merchants to allow sale of goods
— corruption built-in, expected — source of strength, representation for creoles/Indians — gives system flexibility
Types of corruption — causes bribery, nepotism, in-fighting
1. using tribute for personal investment
2. Indian exploitation
3. bribes
4. using position to further family– awarding contracts, collusion with merchants
5. buying office
6. shady accounting practices
Checks or limits on corruption, capricious government
1. crown 2. church
3. local treasury office– all major towns– mines, ports, administrative centers — supervise corregidores& make yearly accounts to allow king his share — office is also sold
4. visita — inspector-general sent from Spain to investigate local officials during term in office — can be local or royal initiative — two types — a. general (spot check); b. specific charges — given broad powers to investigate, punish
5. residencia — judicial review of official’s conduct made at end of term in office– viceroy, audiencia, corregidor — open court proceedings — anyone can testify — penalties usually lenient unless crimes severe — locally run by corregidors
Spanish laws don’t always apply to colonies or districts — primary importance is t maintain loyalty to king; laws designed to benefit all– local officials decide what can be enforced or implemented — informal relationships allow for implementation – — creoles benefit– what is bribery to crown is “influence” to creoles — inter-relatedness/cooperation essential
— crown often shortchanged, but system lasts 300 years with no major rebellions
THE COLONIAL ECONOMY
Intro–The Spanish empire was created at a time of great European commercial expansion, which featured an increasingly global economy based on a new international division of labor and economic specialization. At the beginning of the 16th century Spain was Europe’s great economic power, with a well-developed wool, leather & textile industry. Spanish commercial policy in the colonies reflected that wealth and was the major reason for ways in which colonial Latin America developed the way it did.
A. Commercial Policy– based on theory of mercantilism — product of times– Christianity split into Catholic/Protestant; nation states beginning to form — no common religion, ethical beliefs, no ethnic cohesion — leads to age of competition & war
— Goals — national power, economic self-sufficiency
— Assumptions — economic activity should enhance power of state– health measured in terms of gold & silver — believe that the world’s resources limited & finite — nation with most resources is most powerful — internal demand limited and thus need to increase demand through colonies, trade outside borders — leads to expansion of territory & overproduction of goods
— colonies exist to enhance mother nation power — must protect markets by monopolizing colonial economic activities — trade, mining, etc.– agriculture ignored; manufacturing discouraged — colonies must produce raw materials & import manufactured goods
— necessitates large bureaucracy to supervise tax, trade
— House of Trade issues licenses — chooses Seville to be one port for colonies — all other Spanish ports excluded — merchant guild — consulado given responsibility to supervise & direct trade — Seville inland — force change to Cadiz
Colonial Ports of entry
1. Vera Cruz (Mexico City)
2. Callao (Lima) through Portobello
— In practice– never works
1. population spreads too far for 2-3 ports — more demand — leads to opening of Buenos Aires
2. Council of Indies makes stupid mistakes — flotilla system of trade between Spain & colonies — begun to cut losses to pirates — leads to one large shipment/year — not always
1600-1650 — 28 fleets
1650-1700 — 19 fleets *** fleets are expensive
*** agricultural goods can’t rely on fleets — cargo rots
3. peninsular Spaniards given monopoly on trade
4. contraband
a. trade on West Coast — Lima-Acapulco
— Acapulco legally trades with orient– Lima demands silk, porcelain; China demands silver
b. within empire
c. foreign trade– British, Dutch
5. Spain doesn’t keep its end of bargain — economic decline in 17th century — Spain loses manufacturing base — must re-export goods it doesn’t produce — less than 1/3 goods consumed are from Spain — foreign merchants take colonial silver — force colonies to increase contraband or domestic manufacturing — trade doubles while fleets dwindle
B. Labor — system rests on Indian labor– coerced– pay tribute in labor or coin — Indians enslaved though legally protected
— Spaniards try to work with existing system of labor, but alter system by changing goals, definition of wealth– have external, global focus — Indians no longer enjoy/see benefits — become “lazy”
— demands of mercantilist system changes Indian life– need $, minerals — chief function of Indian is to produce primary products that Spain needs — indigo, cotton, sugar, pepper, hides, tobacco
— mita or repartimiento — labor draft — part of tax system
— run by caciques — drafts Indians to work on public projects — roads, bridges, mines. etc.
— obrajes — textile cloth workers
C. Mining — the key industry — gold, silver, mercury
— Crown sole owner of subsoil rights and grants concessions for mining — extremely expensive, risky — crown invests nothing, gains 20% profits
— stimulates growth of trade, agriculture, industry, population migrations and expansion of frontiers — mines need supplies
— mining labor intensive– requires cheap labor
— first mint established in 1537 — big business by 1550 — silver primary metal
Key sites 1. Zacatecas, Durango in northern Mexico, Potosí, Bolivia (especially in 16th & 17th century)
— silver requires vast quantities of mercury to separate silver from ore — patio process — crush ore to powder — ore usually contain copper, lead, zinc– Spaniards ignore — silver clings to mercury — wash — can reuse mercury — crown has monopoly on mercury — average 15 ounces silver/ton of earth — extremely dangerous vocation
— 17th century — mining declines — Reasons — 1. flooding of mine shafts– drainage major problem; 2. labor scarce– forced labor difficult to secure; 3. decline in quality of ore — exhaust easy areas; 4. lawlessness, corruption, graft slow production; 5. declining mercury production
— 18th century revival after reforms reduce price of mercury, establish miners guild, establish school of mines, and change mining code to increase local profits — mining profits stay in colonies to pay for ships, defense
Other areas of economy do not decline– merchant activity increases in 17th & 18th centuries — Indians create demand for Spanish goods– integrated into economy– creates demand for Indian goods — also great increase in illegal intra-colonial trade — by 1800, empire no longer dependent on Spain– self-sufficient
D. Agriculture — not productive — corn major product grown– locally consumed
— also grow cacao, sugar cane, silk, cochineal (red beetle), indigo, maguey (century plant) — leaves have fibers like sisal, used for rope, cheap clothing, paper; use needles at end for sewing; core used for tequila
— 17th century– rise of hacienda culture
— Myths of hacienda — large self-sufficient farms; intensive Indian labor & debt peonage; dominate home markets; ownership stable, stagnant; steal Indian land
— Realities — ownership not stable but constantly fluctuating; most haciendas not profitable; Indians own much of own land– lands not stolen, but abandoned by population decline; not self-sufficient, but cash crops; African slave labor utilized
— Several types of haciendas — plantations, ranches, chacaras
— Indian holdings continue to be communal
— Large land holdings profitable
1. cattle, sheep on marginal lands
2. sugar, coffee on better lands
3. if near city or mine– produce food for local consumption
E. Education — crucial for upward mobility
— Spain pays more attention to higher education than most European — 1551 — establish University of Mexico
— University of San Marcos in Lima before 1600– curriculum law, philosophy, rhetoric, medicine
— early efforts to educate all levels of society — Charles I brother, Pedro de Gante arrives 1535 to educate Indian chiefs’ sons– very successful– colonists resist, force closure
— by 1600 — very difficult for Indians to acquire education
— Sister Ines Dela Cruz — early feminist, distinguished poet, essayist, philosopher, leader of intellectuals — most writings survive
F. Health & Medicine — repeated epidemics of smallpox, typhus
— 1760-1810 — over 50,000 deaths from above two diseases in Mexico City alone — quarantines never work because of practice of using rented materials for funerals & burying people in church — poor sanitation, lake drainage
G. Family life — cornerstone of Spanish society, but in state of flux in colonies — cosmic race considered illegitimate — lineage important
— role and status of women — rights, opportunities
— how people lived — entertainment, role of Church, thriving colonial arts, theater, alcohol
— life in the interior — isolation, cultural variations, such as gaucho, Paraguayans — society forced to modify to adjust — life more restricted, limited, violent– wild west syndrome
— impact on Indian life — breakdown of tribal groups in some areas — destruction of unity by systematic destruction of language, religion — drinking, homicide, rebellion
— certain tribes & caciques profit from policy to promote division– control own ancestral lands
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