SEM 201: Human Actors Descriptions and Analysis
Communication
is one of those words that can have various definitions that is based on context and discipline. Communication can be defined as the process of creating, disseminating, receiving, and interpreting messages (Miller, 2002). Most living organisms (e.g., humans and animals) have ways in which they communicate with one another. However, this unit will focus on the type of communication that applies to human interaction which can involve the following: body language or non-verbal communication, public speaking and presentation skills, interpersonal skills (e.g., listening, assertiveness, questioning and giving feedback), and intrapersonal communication (e.g., self-talk, affirmations, distorted thinking) – just to name a few. In terms of work environments, no organization can operate without some form of communication. In fact, many corporations spend a substantial amount of money on communication efforts with both employees, customers, and investors. In many ways, clear and effective communication is essential to work environments.
Often times, the areas of skills and knowledge previously mentioned are recognized as soft skills and transferrable skills, and essential by employers of all sectors. Different modes of communication are interconnected in a systematic way, as shown below in Figure 1. Workplace communication is categorized as “Organizational” in the figure below.
Figure 1. A Concentric Model of Fields of Communication
Communication Modes.
Communication modes are usually distinct from communication, and it usually relates to the physics and mechanics of telecommunications such as satellites, telephone networks, and the internet. A general definition of communication modes may be the study of the transfer of data, though you are likely to running into other definitions given this age when so much information is mediated by technology. A useful way of thinking about communication modes versus communication is to consider that one is a mechanical transmission that enables the transfer of meaningful content. Another way of thinking about the relationship between communication and communication modes is by considering communication to be a message and communication modes as the vehicle that delivers the message to its intended audience or receiver. Communication modes may include the following: fax machines, cordless telephones, answering machines/voicemail, the internet, email, online chat rooms, blogging, and podcasting – just to name a few. These communication modes allow the different spheres listed in the figure above to
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SEM 201: Human Actors Descriptions and Analysis
connect in routine and unexpected ways. For example, a private email correspondence between two workers may be made public and published on the internet. Another example could be how interpersonal issues with one’s family affects intrapersonal communication, and in turn one’s customer service skills are affected on the job (Eunson, 2007). When you start your ethnography assignment, you will be tasked with identifying communication and modes of communication utilized in the workplace.
Employee Roles in Organization & Workplace Interactions
Supervisor to Employer Interactions.
Successful and unsuccessful supervisor to employee interactions are often determined by communication and leadership styles. Does the supervisor command employees to complete tasks? Does the supervisor empower their employees to complete tasks? Is the supervisor willing to complete tasks alongside their employees? All of these actions communicate something about the supervisor to employer interactions you may see during your observations. There are many models of leadership in organizations, but the diagram below focuses on Hersey and Blanchard’s (1977) leadership model. According to this model, there are four styles of leadership, which are listed in the center column below. Employee ability and employee willingness are pretty straightforward, so let me explain task orientation and relationship. Task behavior is the extent to which the leader spells out duties and responsibilities of an individual or group. Relationship is the extent to which the leader engages in two-way conversation and it involves listening, providing encouragement, and coaching. The “telling” style is very directive and involves the minimum amount of relationship behavior. The “selling” style is directive, but in a more persuasive, guiding manner – the human relationship is emphasized. The “participating” style involves less direction and more collaboration. Finally, in the “delegating” style, the leader delegates responsibility for a task to a group or individual and is simply kept informed of progress. If the supervisor is present, consider the type of style(s) that best characterizes their approach.
? ? Selling ? ? ? ? Delegating ? ?
Employee to Employee Interactions / Group Tasks.
Like supervisor to employee interactions, communication is key in successful employee to employee interactions. Some tasks and positions in an organization require employees to work in seclusion—where it seem as if very little interaction with other employees occur. However, working in a team setting is something that everyone will have to do at some point in their lives; it’s truly a phenomenon that people revel in or dislike throughout the duration of their lives, and work is no exception. There are many ways in which a group’s collective efforts will result in success or failure to complete a task. Additive tasks allow members to contribute individually
Employee Ability
Employee Willingness
Style
Task Orientation
Relationship
?
?
Telling
?
?
?
?
Participating
?
?
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SEM 201: Human Actors Descriptions and Analysis
and those individual contributions add together for a final great output for the group (e.g., pulling a rope in “tug a war”). Compensatory tasks require group members to average their individual recommendations (e.g., money market forecasts). Disjunctive tasks involve a group determining a single solution for the entire group (e.g., marketing campaigns pitching). Conjunctive tasks require all members to contribute to complete a project, and the group’s performance is determined by the weakest group member (e.g., groups climbing a mountain). Finally, discretionary tasks allow members to determine which way they will use individual group members’ contributions (e.g., jurors deliberating on verdict). If more than one employee is present, consider Steiner’s (1972) model in how the group is working together.
Dress in the Workplace
How often do you think about dress in the workplace? As a customer, think about how important the attire of employees is to meeting your needs. Imagine running into a store and having a hard time finding the item you need. What if everyone in the store was dressed just like you? You would probably have to spend extra time finding what you needed. You may even may even feel the need to ask people (at random) “Excuse me. Do you work here?” Having employees who wear identifiable attire is important in many work environments. The truth is, dress plays an important role in the workplace as it is often a cue that allows individuals to identify executives and subordinates. Clothing is often one of the first things that individuals see and it sometimes can leave a lasting impression. Clothing can immediately establish a sort of social order in the workplace, whether people are aware of it or not. Clothing can signify class status, political identification, and rank in many public settings. In the early 1900s, casual dress emerged in downtown financial districts, corporate conference rooms, and large and small businesses across the nation. The spectrum of casual clothing is broad, and casual business wear allows the person to feel comfortable at work and yet look neat and professional (Biecher, Keaton, & Pollman, 1999). Other options for dressing to work include the following: business casual, casual, formal, and executive dress. Consider the category that would best define the style of dress you see in the workplace. Also, consider how the style of dress is similar or different from the recipient of services and what that means for the relationship.
Additive:
Individual Contributions are added
Compensatory: Inputs are averaged
Disjunctive:
Group selects solution from 1 member
Conjunctive:
Limited by worst performing member
Discretionary:
Group decides how to combine contributions
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SEM 201: Human Actors Descriptions and Analysis
Employee Roles in Organization
Within the same job, individuals could have markedly different perceptions regarding what their role is about (Parker, 2007). For example, one administrative assistant could define his role in broad terms, believing that he is responsible for answering the phone and anticipating the needs of guest speakers for a meeting. Contrarily, another individual in the same position could define their role much more narrowly and not necessarily view meeting the needs of guest as “their job.” These individuals differ in terms of their role orientation, or how they define their work role, including what types and breadth of tasks, goals, and problems they see within their purview of responsibilities, and how they should approach these tasks to be effective (Parker, 1997). It is extremely important to note that perception of work roles can contain established task elements as well as emergent task elements (Ilgen & Hollenbeck, 1991). Many people change how they see their jobs as a means of achieving meaning and identity in the workplace (Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001). For example, consider the professor that decides that she will not just meet with her class for the hour she was mandated to provide by the institution, but rather she will stay beyond the prescribed time to provide mentorship and guidance. Consider the organizational role that individuals play in your observations and based on what you observe see if you can ascertain how that individual perceives their role.
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SEM 201: Human Actors Descriptions and Analysis References
Biecher, E., Keaton, P. N., & Pollman, A. W. (1999). Casual dress at work. S. A. M. Advanced Management Journal, 64(1), 17-20.
Eunson, B. (2007). Communications in the Workplace. Milton, QLD: John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd.
Hersey, P., & Blanchard, K. H. (1977). Management of organizational behavior (5th Ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Ilgen, D. R., & Hollenbeck, J. R. (1991). The structure of work: Job design and roles. In M. D. Dunnette & L. M. Hough (Eds), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology, 2nd ed. San Diego, CA: Consulting Psychology Press.
Miller, K. (2005). Communication theories: Perspectives, processes, and contexts.
Parker, S. K. (2007). ‘That is my job’: How employees’ role orientation affects their job performance. Human Relations, 60(3), 403-434.
Steiner, I. D. (1972). Group Processes and Productivity. New York, NY: Academic Press. Wrzesniewski, A., & Dutton, J. E. (2001). Crafting a job: Revisioning employees as active
crafters of their work. Academy of Management Review, 179-201.
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